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335 lines
90 KiB
Plaintext
<title>Marine fisheries of Gujarat: post-harvest losses and possibilities for development</title>
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TDRI Tropical Development and Research Institute
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T. W. Bostock
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August 1987 Tropical Development and Research Institute
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127 Clerkenwell Road London EC1R 5DB
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Overseas Development Administration
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<section>Acknowledgements</section>
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The author would like to thank the staff of CIFT for their help and support during his first visit to India. Special thanks go to Dr. Gopakumar, Dr. P. G. V. Nair, Mr. Damle and Mr. Solanki for their kind hospitality. Thanks also to the staff of CMFRI in Veraval for their advice and information and to the many members of the private sector interviewed during this visit.
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© Crown copyright 1987
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This report was produced by the Tropical Development and Research Institute (formed by the amalgamation of the Tropical Products Institute and the Centre for Overseas Pest Research) a British Government organisation, funded by the Overseas Development Administration, which provides technical assistance to developing countries. The Institute specialises in post-harvest problems and pest and vector management.
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Short extracts of material from this report may be reproduced in any non-advertising, non-profit context provided that the source is acknowledged as follows:
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Bostock, T. W. (1987) Marine fisheries of Gujarat: post-harvest losses and possibilities for development. Report of the Tropical Development and Research Institute, L75, v + 32pp.
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Permission for commercial reproduction should, however, be sought from the Head, Publications, Publicity and Public Relations Section Tropical Development and Research Institute, College House, Wrights Lane, London W8 5SJ, England.
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No charge is made for single copies of this publication sent to governmental and educational establishments, research institutions and non-profit making organisations working in countries eligible for British Aid. Free copies cannot normally be addressed to individuals by name but only under their official titles.
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Tropical Development and Research Institute
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ISBN: 0 85954 - 221-1
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ISSN: 0264-7648
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<section>Summaries</section>
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Summary
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Résumé
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Resumen
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Summary
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A visit to Gujarat, India was carried out as part of a programme of collaboration between TDRI and the Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), India. The objective of the visit was to study the extent of post-harvest losses in fish and their impact on the fishing industry. The emphasis of the programme was directed towards three major areas: trawler by-catch 'trash', fresh fish and cured fish.
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Nature of losses
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The overall utilisation of the total catch in Gujarat appears to be high. There is little evidence of gross physical losses caused, for example, by the dumping of low value by-catch at sea, a practice which is carried out in other areas of India. A strong, well-established market demand for a diverse range of fish products stimulates this high level of utilisation in spite of the fact that the catches of the various fleets comprise an enormous range of species whose value may vary by up to two orders of magnitude.
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However, as a result of a combination of handling and socio-economic factors, fish tends to be downgraded into lower value categories resulting in economic losses (i.e. a net reduction of potential revenue) which occur throughout the industry and at all levels of operation. These losses are likely to be extremely important. They range from the use for reduction into fish meal of small fish which would more efficiently be used for direct human consumption, to the use for domestic consumption of potentially high value fish which could be exported.
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In Gujarat itself, net physical losses (i.e. losses of nutrients through spoilage) caused by poor handling and processing, or through insect infestation, do not appear to be of great importance in fish which is destined for human consumption. They do, however, become important when fish is stored for long periods in the marketing centres such as Bombay.
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Nutritional losses (i.e. reduction in nutritional value due to spoilage or toxicity) are also unlikely to be significant in fish for human consumption except in the case of cured pelagic fish, such as tuna, where the excessive rancidity observed, and the likelihood of histamine development, could pose a risk.
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Conversely, however, in fish used for fishmeal production, both net physical losses and nutritional losses can be expected to be high. Data on these aspects have been obtained experimentally and are reported.
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Impact of losses
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At this stage it would be premature to quantify the differing impact of economic losses on the various fisheries owing to the lack of sound, long-term data on fish utilisation. However, it is clear from initial work carried out on its composition, that as much as 50% of the trash fish (i.e. the material to be used for fish meal) from the trawler fleet could be upgraded for direct human consumption as traditional cured products, through the application of simple preservation techniques on the boats. It is calculated that this would increase the annual revenue to the industry by about Rupees 4 million after deducting sufficient amounts to cover the extra labour and material costs involved.
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Although physical losses occurring during fish meal production are important, any economic loss tends to be offset by the weight gain due to soil and sand contamination during drying. Incentives to change are few.
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Losses and downgrading of fresh fish due to spoilage cannot be accurately assessed until more long-term data are available from destination markets. Initial indications, however, show that some 10-15% of fresh fish arrives in Delhi and Bombay from Gujarat in poor condition. Significantly, this fish does not go to waste but is sold at a reduced price representing an economic loss estimated to be in the region of Rupees 70 million per year (10% of the total value of the fresh fish industry).
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There is strong evidence to suggest that more of the fresh fish from the gill-net fishery which is used for domestic consumption could be upgraded and frozen for lucrative export (e.g. red snappers). This represents another unquantifiable source of economic loss to the sector.
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Losses and downgrading of cured fish (into fishmeal) appear to be of limited significance. This is helped by the strong tradition for fish curing, the liberal use of salt owing to its low cost, and the excellent prevailing atmospheric drying conditions which greatly reduce spoilage and the risk of insect damage.
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Reduction of losses
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Although estimates for losses have been made in both economic and physical terms, the data upon which these were based can only be regarded as preliminary bearing in mind the complexity and dynamic nature of the fishery and processing industry. Future work should therefore concentrate on strengthening the programme of data gathering to facilitate future assessments.
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As well as these long-term inputs, scope appears to exist for short-term projects aimed principally at reducing economic losses. It is likely that much could be achieved through extension and training activities directed towards promoting improved handling, preservation and sanitation. Recommendations to this effect are made throughout the report.
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Résumé
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Une visite à Gujarat en Inde a été conduite dans le cadre d'un programme de collaboration entre le TDRI et le CIFT (Institut central des technologies de la pêche d'Inde). L'objectif de cette visite était d'étudier l'étendue des pertes en poissons après récolte et l'incidence de ces pertes sur l'industrie de la pêche. Ce programme se proposait de mettre l'accent sur trots secteurs principaux: poissons de rebut sur les prises secondaires des chalutiers, poissons frais et poissons saurés.
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Nature des pertes
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L'utilisation d'ensemble de la prise totale enregistrée à Gujarat semble être bonnet Peu de preuves attestent de pertes physiques importantes dues, par exemple, au rejet en mer de prises secondaires de faible valeur. Une demande commerciale forte et bien implantée portent sur une gamme variée de produits de la pêche contribue à ce taux d'utilisation élevé en dépit du fait que les prises réalisées par les diverges flottes comprennent un large éventail d'espèces dont la valeur peut varier du simple au double.
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Toutefois, par suite d'un concours de facteurs relatifs à la manutention et de facteurs socio-économiques, le poisson tend à être rabaissé dans des catégories de moindre valeur commerciale et il en résulte des pertes économiques (c-à-d. une diminution nette des recettes potentielles) qui se répercutent à tous les niveaux de l'opération. II est probable que ces pertes soient extrêmement importantes, allant depuis la transformation en farine de petite poissons qui se prêteraient mieux et de manière plus rentable à une consummation directe par l'homme, à la consommation domestique de produits qu'une valeur marchande potentiellement élevée rendrait propres à l'exportation.
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A Gujarat même, les pertes physiques nettes (c-à-d. les pertes en substance nutritive dues à une mise au rebut) occasionnées par de médiocres opérations de manutention et de transformation, ou causées par une infestation par insectes, ne semblent pas d'une importance considérable pour le poisson destiné à la consommation humaine. Elles s'avèrent toutefois importantes lorsque le poisson est emmagasiné pendant de longues périodes de temps dans des centres commerciaux tels celui de Bombay.
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Les pertes nutritionnelles (c-à-d. diminution de la valeur nutritive due à une mise au rebut ou pour raison de toxicité) ne risquent pas non plus d'être significatives pour le poisson destiné à la consommation humaine, excepté toutefois lorsqu'il s'agit de poissons pélagiques saurés comme le thon, pour lesquels le rancissement excessif constaté et la probabilité d'un développement d'histamine pourraient présenter un risque.
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En revanche, lorsqu'il s'agit du poisson utilisé pour la production de farine de poisson, l'on peut s'attendre à de fortes pertes tant physiques que nutritionnelles. Les données se rapportant à ces aspects ont été obtenues à partir d'expériences et vent ici fournies.
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Incidences des pertes
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En raison du manque de fondement et de ['absence de données à long terme sur l'utilisation du poisson, il serait prématuré de vouloir dès aujourd'hui quantifier les diverges incidences que ces pertes économiques ont sur les différentes pêcheries. II ressort toutefois clairement des premières études réalisées sur ça composition que 50% du poisson de rebut (c-à-d. celui utilisé pour la farine de poisson) ramené par les chalutiers pourrait être revalorisé en vue d'être consommé directement par l'homme en tant que produit traditionnel sauré et ce, par l'emploi de techniques de conservation simples sur les bateaux. Les calculs indiquent que cette mesure engendrerait une augmentation du revenu annuel de l'industrie de l'ordre de 4 millions de roupies après déduction des sommes nécessaires pour la prise en compte de la main d'oeuvre supplémentaire et des coûts de matériel.
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Bien que les pertes subies lors de la production de farine de poisson soient importantes, toute perte économique tend à être contrebalancée par le gain de poids résultant de la mise en contact du produit avec la terre et le sable lors du séchage. Peu d'encouragements visent à modifier cette pratique.
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Les pertes et la dévalorisation du poisson frais pour cause de mise au rebut ne peuvent être estimées avec précision tant que les marchés destinataires ne fournissent pas de données à long terme. Les premiers renseignements obtenus indiquent toutefois que de 10 à 15% du poisson frais expédié de Gujarat arrive en condition médiocre à Delhi et à Bombay. Fait révélateur en soi, ce poisson n'est pas jeté mais vendu à un prix réduit, ce qui représente une perte économique estimée à environ 70 millions de roupies par an (soit 10% de la valeur totale de l'industrie du poisson frais).
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Les observations encouragent à penser que davantage de poissons frais ayant été pêchés à l'araignée et utilisés pour la consommation domestique pourraient être revalorisés et congelés à des fins d'exportation lucratives (par exemple, le vivaneau).
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Ceci représente une autre source non-chiffrable de pertes économiques subies par le secteur.
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Les pertes et la dévalorisation du poisson sauré (production de farine de poisson) semblent être de moindre importance du fait de la forte tradition de saurissage, de l'utilisation généreuse de sel (en raison de son prix faible), et des excellentes conditions atmosphériques de séchage qui diminuent grandement la mise au rebut et le risque d'attaque par insectes.
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Diminution des pertes
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Bien que ces pertes aient été estimées tant en termes économiques que physiques, les données sur lesquelles elles s'appuient ne peuvent revêtir qu'un caractère préliminaire compte tenu de la nature complexe et dynamique de l'industrie de la pêche et de transformation. II conviendrait donc qu'à l'avenir les travaux se concentrent sur le renforcement de ce programme de collection de données en vue de faciliter toute estimation future.
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Parallèlement à ces contributions à long terme, il semble y avoir place pour des projects à court terme dont le premier objectif serait de réduire les pertes économiques. II est probable que de bons résultats puissent être obtenus par le biais d'activités d'extension et de formation visant à améliorer la manutention ainsi que les procédés sanitaires et de conservation. Des recommandations à ces égards vent formulées en plusieurs endroits du rapport.
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Resumen
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Dentro de un programa de colaboración entre el TDRI y el Instituto Central de Tecnologia de Pesquerias (CIFT), India, se llevó a cabo una visita a Gujarat, India, pare estudiar la importancia de las pérdidas de pescado después de la capture y su impacto sobre la industria pesquera. El programa prestó particular atención a tres sectores de importancia: capture secundaria de los arrastreros, pescado fresco y pescado curado.
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Naturaleza de las pérdidas
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La utilización general de la capture total de Gujarat parece ser elevada, sin que apenas existan indicios de pérdidas fisicas de importancia, por ejemplo, mediante el vertido en el mar de la pesca secundaria de bajo valor, práctica común en otras zonas de la India. La existencia de una demanda fuerte y bien establecida pare una amplia gama de productos pesqueros sirve de estimulo pare este elevado nivel de utilización, a pesar de que las captures de las diversas flotas comprenden una gama enorme de especies, cuyo valor puede variar aun en dos órdenes de magnitud.
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Esto no obstante, y como resultado de una combinación de factores socioeconómicos y de gestión, el pescado tiende a ser depreciado en categorías más bajas de valor, resultando en pérdidas económicas (es decir, una reducción neta de los ingresos posibles), que se producen a lo largo y ancho de la industria y en los distintos niveles de operación. Es probable que dichas pérdidas resulten ser extremadamente importantes, desde la reducción a harina de pescado pequeño, que seria aprovechado más eficientemente pare consumo humano directo, hasta el empleo pare consumo doméstico de pescado de valor potencialmente elevado, que podria dedicarse a la exportación.
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En Gujarat, las pérdidas físicas netas (es decir, pérdidas de elementos nutritivos, como resultado del deterioro), causadas por deficiencia en manejo y elaboración o infestación por insectos, no parecen ser de gran importancia en pescado destinado al consumo humano. Sin embargo, son de importancia cuando el pescado se almacena por periodos prolongados en centros de comercialización, tales como Bombay.
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Las pérdidas nutritivas (es decir, reducción en el valor nutritivo del pescado, debido a su deterioro o toxicidad) tampoco es probable que sean significativas en el sector del pescado pare consumo humano, excepto cuando se trata de pescado pel agico curado, tal como el atún, en donde la excesiva ranciedad observada y la posibilidad del desarrollo de histamina podrian constituir un peligro.
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Por el contrario, puede esperarse que sean elevadas las pérdidas fisicas y nutritivas netas en el pescado utilizado pare la producción de harina, presentándose datos experimentalmente obtenidos sobre estos aspectos.
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Impacto de las pérdidas
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Resultaría prematuro, a este punto, querer cuantificar el impacto relativo de las pérdidas económicas sobre las diversas pesquerias, debido a la carencia de datos validos a largo plazo sobre utilización del pescado. Sin embargo, y basándonos en trabajos iniciales llevados a cabo sobre su composición, parece claro que aun hasta el 50% del pescado de desecho (es decir, material pare harina de pescado) de la flota de arrasteros podria ser promovido pare su consumo humano directo, a manera de productos tradicionales curados, mediante la aplicación en los barcos mismos de sencillas técnicas de preservación. Según calculos realizados, ello resultaria en un incremento de unos 4 millones de rupias en los ingresos anuales de la industria, tras haberse deducido cantidades suficientes pare cubrir los costes adicionales de materiales y mano de obra.
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Si bien las pérdidas físicas que se producen durante la elaboración de la harina de pescado son de importancia, cualquier pérdida económica tiende a verse compensada por la ganancia de peso debida a contaminación con sierra y arena durante el secado. Los incentivos de cambio son escasos.
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No resulta posible evaluar con precisión las pérdidas y la reducción en la calidad del pescado fresco, como resultando de su deterioro, hasta que se disponga de un mayor número de datos a largo plazo, procedentes de los mercados de destino. Sin embargo, los datos iniciales parecen indicar que alrededor del 10-15% del pescado fresco llega a Delhi y Bombay desde Gujarat en mal estado. Es importante constatar, que dicho pescado no se desperdicia, sino que se vende a precio reducido, representando una pérdida económica que se ha calculado en unos 70 millones de rupias anuales (10% del valor total de la industria del pescado fresco).
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Existen fuertes rezones pare creer que seria posible promover y congelar pare su lucrativa exportación una mayor cantidad del pescado fresco de la pesca por enmalle utilizado pare consumo doméstico (por ejemplo, el guachinango). Esto constituye otra fuente no cuantificable de pérdidas económicas pare el sector.
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Las pérdidas y depreciación del pescado curado (transformado en harina de pescado) parecen ser de importancia limitada, a lo que contribuye la fuerte tradición de curado de pescado, el empleo generoso de la sal - resultado de su bajo coste - , y las excelentes condiciones atmosféricas de secado, que reducen grandemente el deterioro del pescado y el peligro de daños debidos a los insectos.
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Reducción de pérdidas
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Si bien se han realizado cálculos de las pérdidas tanto físicas como económicas, los datos sobre los que se basan dichos cálculos deben ser considerados únicamente como preliminares, si se tienen en cuenta la complejidad y naturaleza dinámica de la industria pesquera y de elaboración del pescado. En consecuencia, todo estudio futuro deberia centrarse en el fortalecimiento del programa de recogida de datos, para facilitar cualquier futura evaluación.
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Además de estas perspectivas a largo plazo, parece existir oportunidad para proyectos a corto plazo, encaminados, principalmente, a reducir las pérdidas económicas. Es probable que pudieran obtenerse buenos resultados, mediante actividades de capacitación y extensión dirigidas hacia la producción de un mejor manejo, preservación y cuidados sanitarios. A lo largo del entero informe se presentan recomendaciones en esta dirección.
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<section>Introduction</section>
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As part of a programme of mutual technical collaboration between TDRI and the Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), India, a visit was made to Gujarat, India in order to carry out a qualitative assessment of fish utilisation during the peak fishing season and to initiate a programme of quantitative measurement of losses. Specifically this aims to characterise the present industry; to quantify losses during handling, processing and distribution and to identify the principal stages where these occur; and to determine the overall extent and economic importance of losses throughout the season and the factors (such as fish supply, socio-economic or market related) which influence them.
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The methodology and results of this work could have repercussions not only in other areas of India, but also in other fisheries throughout the world where similar problems exist.
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<section>Methodology</section>
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After spending some time on familiarisation and data collection visits to the principal fish landing and processing centres around the Gujarat coast, proposals for a work programme were formulated. These proposals, summarised below, recognised the priority requirement for more detailed and long-term data on various aspects of the Gujarat fishery which would permit more accurate analyses of the present trends in fish utilisation whilst providing more precise information on the extent and impact on the community of the losses in fish which occur. The programme was divided into four main categories:
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Trawler by-catch 'trash' fish: long-term monitoring of catch composition. Fresh fish: long-term monitoring of handling and marketing.
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Cured fish: long-term monitoring of production and development of processing methods.
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Extension and training activities.
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Initial results for the first three of these categories were obtained during the visit, and are presented and discussed. The extent of losses are, where possible, estimated in economic terms.
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<section>Description of the fishing industry</section>
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Resources
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Fishing methods
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Infrastructure
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Handling, processing and marketing
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A description of the Gujarat fishing industry and detailed statistical information can be found in United Nations Development Programme/Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1979) and Marine Products Export Development Authority (1984a). The review which follows provides some updated information as well as some additional details which are thought to be relevant to the present study on losses.
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Resources
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Representing some 15% of India's total marine catch, the Gujarat fishery is considered to be one of the most important in India. The total fish landings of Gujarat during the 1983 - 84 season were reported to be 244 400 t, of which 91.4% was of marine origin (Government of Gujarat, 1985). This figure has varied little from the 1970s (Figure 1). A breakdown of the major groups of commercial fish is given in Table 1.
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Although the resource potential is generally good, over the last decade there have been signs of local heavy fishing pressure. The catch of the large Veraval trawler fleet, currently comprising some five hundred 10-15 metre boats (Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 1983), has changed considerably. The resources, particularly that of shrimp, are stressed by overfishing due to the increase in numbers of shrimp trawlers, and the fishery is becoming increasingly uneconomic. Deshpande et a/. (1970) reported 20% shrimp in the catch from 1966 to 1968, and in 1977 Panicker et a/. (1977) reported 23.5-42.7%. However, by 1979-82 the percentage of shrimp declined to 7.8% with overall catch rates being less than half of their previous levels. Although the data from the present visit are insufficient to draw any firm conclusions, it would appear that the proportion of shrimp in the catch has declined still further (observations showed that shrimp formed 3.5% of the catch of 19
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trawlers sampled during November 1986; data also from Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, personal communication). This decline in productivity has led to many fishermen and boat operators moving to other more productive areas such as Okha, situated in the north of the state.
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An additional sign of heavy fishing pressure is the fact that although the number of boats increased from 6 258 in 1977 (of which 2 371 were mechanised) to 11 774 in 1984 (of which 4 245 were mechanised), the total catch did not increase (see Figure 1).
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Fishing methods
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The three principal fishing methods used produce catches for distinct and almost mutually exclusive markets (Table 2). Mechanised fishing craft produce about 75% of the state's total catch (Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 1983).
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Of these, mechanised trawlers (producing some 38-44% of the state's total catch and 59% of the state's total mechanised catch: Marine Products Export Development Authority, 1984a; Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 1983) contribute shrimp for export and a large quantity of by-catch which is used either for curing (i.e. salting and drying or drying only) or for artisanal fish meal production. The by-catch consists of a wide range of mainly small size and low value species and is described in greater detail later (see Table 7).
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Anchored bag nets or dol nets, used mainly to the south and east of Veraval and serviced by mechanised and non-mechanised boats, produce about 25% (although this figure could be as high as 35%) of the total state catch. This fishing method selects quite effectively for Bombay duck which usually constitutes 69-77% of the catch (Khan, 1986). The quantities of by-catch produced by this fishery are therefore much less than those produced by trawling. Bombay duck is used wholly for drying, the product having by far the highest unit value of any cured fish produced in the state.
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Gill netters, both mechanised and non-mechanised (producing about 19% of the state's catch), provide most of the high quality fish for fresh consumption and export as well as large quantities of small elasmobranchs for curing. As would be expected, very little by-catch is produced by this fishery.
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Many variations exist between these types of gear and the craft used. In addition there are traditional gears which may have significant local importance. These are well described elsewhere (e.g. United Nations Development Programme/Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1979) and will not be mentioned further in this report.
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Infrastructure
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Of the 173 landing centres situated along the Gujarat coastline, only 18 have any permanent landing facilities such as harbours or jetties. Of the ports visited, Veraval, Mangrol and Porbandar appeared to be the most developed and between them handle about 72% (157 000 t-1984) of the state catch as well as possessing 68% (741 t/day) of the state's ice production capacity and 90% (1 820 t) of the frozen storage capacity. Of the state's total, 2 113 mechanised boats (61%) operate from these ports with just over a half of these being trawlers. About 96% of the existing ice making capacity is in private hands and ice is competitively priced at around Rupees (Rs) 0.20/kg. Ice appeared to be plentiful in Veraval and is transported from there and the other production centres to the more remote landing areas to suit requirements.
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Even where landing facilities exist, they do not appear to be used as effectively as they might. There are several likely reasons for this. In Veraval, although the new landing centre (World Bank financed) is convenient for the shrimp processors, it is located well away from the traditional and established area for fresh fish marketing. Many of the fresh fish merchants (and hence their suppliers) are reluctant to change, leading to a situation where the landing facilities are used almost exclusively by the trawler fleet for landing shrimp and by-catch, while fish destined for fresh distribution is landed both at the beach to the north of the town (Zaleshwar) and at the congested main jetty immediately adjacent to the town. Additionally, although both the landing facilities at Veraval and Mangrol include auction halls with stalls for storage and wholesale of fresh fish on ice, the auction system appears to be little developed here. Most fish is disposed of through prearranged
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contracts with merchants and boat owners, many of whom act as creditors to fishermen and are repaid with a portion of the catch. In these circumstances, much of this handling, marketing and iced storage capacity remains underutilised.
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In other important fishing centres such as Jafarabad and Rajpara where large quantities of Bombay duck are landed and processed (likely quantities are 35 00075 000 t/year), the landing facilities are sparse with most of the fish being landed directly onto the beach. This is, in general, symptomatic of the fact that the greatest investment in infrastructure has been made in the fishing centres which specialise in higher value produce such as shrimp and frozen fish, rather than, for example, cured fish.
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Handling, processing and marketing
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The public sector is heavily involved in major infrastructural development mainly through such programmes as the Integrated Fisheries Development Project, which the World Bank supports, the Centrally Sponsored Five Year Plan Schemes and many other areas of fisheries development (e.g. boat design, and loans for mechanisation, statistics, training). However, it is the private sector which has almost exclusive control of the processing and commercialisation of fish. Attempts by the state government to increase its role in these operations have been largely unsuccessful.
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On-board handling and preservation
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Table 3 presents a classification of the catch indicating values, types of processing and the respective destination markets. It will be noticed that the variation in value between shrimp/Class I fish and the Class V is around two orders of magnitude. This large differential is very important in determining the amount of time and money invested in handling any given part of the catch, a factor which also has an important bearing on the extent of the overall losses occurring. As would be expected therefore, high value products such as shrimp and pomfret will be well handled, whereas trawler by-catch trash fish, which is used for fish meal production, will receive the minimum of attention.
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Fishing boats which go to sea for periods of more than one day invariably carry ice (in block form) but this will be used only to preserve the higher value catch. Observation of gill netters in Mangrol revealed for example, that for 4-day journeys ten 100 kg blocks of ice would be taken on-board. The landings being made for this period were of the order of 1 200 kg, all of high value (Classes 1-111), well chilled and stored in insulated fish holds. Trawlers from Veraval expecting to be at sea for three days would normally take up to seven blocks (700 kg), but this would be used only for chilling shrimp and small amounts of by-catch fish in Classes I and 11. Trips lasting only one day would very rarely involve the use of ice and, in this case, the higher value catch would be sorted and kept as cool as possible on the deck, usually out of the sun. Fish which is to be salted and dried for human consumption or for use as fish meal is never iced although it may sometimes be
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salted on the boat before landing. Generally speaking, landing from the boats is rapid and processing is carried out within a short period afterwards.
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Fresh fish: handling and processing
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It has been estimated that 26-35% (about 50 000-70 000 t) of the total annual catch of Gujarat is used for internal marketing in the fresh form (United Nations Development Programme/Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1979; Marine Products Export Development Authority, 1984a).
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Fish which is to be distributed fresh is generally well iced within a short period after landing. The fish is transported to the trader's storehouse where it is mixed with plenty of ice and either dispatched immediately or stored until sufficient has been accumulated to meet the specific market requirement.
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In the more remote landing centres (such as Vanakbara, Jafarabad and Okha) the higher value material will be bought by itinerant traders, iced and then dispatched immediately by truck either direct to inland markets or, more usually, to the major distribution centres such as Veraval and Porbandar where it will be frozen for export or further iced and stored for later distribution. Some merchants, for example, specialise in the higher value by-catch of the Bombay duck fishery, such as Penaeid shrimps and large predatory Sciaenids such as ghol, which are iced and sent to Veraval for processing.
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It was noted that in one of these fishing centres (Vanakbara, Diu Island) well-constructed 500 kg-capacity insulated ice boxes were much in evidence. These are usually financed by the local fish merchants and are used by the mechanised gill net fleet (from outboard motor-powered dug-outs to larger-sized vessels). Questioning the fishermen and merchants about these ice boxes revealed that through their use, longer trips were possible and the fish maintained its quality for longer periods. This is of importance when considering the distance from this landing centre to the main fish dealers in Veraval.
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Fish which is to be exported is usually taken directly from the landing to the processing plant where it is iced or processed immediately. These plants, which are used mainly for shrimp and high quality fish exports, are run exclusively by the private sector. The standards of cleanliness in all of those visited were very good and it is considered that the only major area requiring attention would involve certain aspects of raw material handling prior to its arrival at the packing plants. These for example would include the lack of ice in the one-day catch and the inadequacies in the way the catch is handled once landed; many of the landing areas visited (with the exception of the new landing centre in Mangrol) were very poor in terms of hygiene and sanitation. These handling problems could cause economic losses by reducing the export potential of the final product (see p.24).
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Fresh fish: marketing
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The fact that the majority of the inhabitants of the state are vegetarian has led to the development of complex systems for distributing fish to other parts of India. This involves packing the fish in ice inside second-hand tea chests and transporting either by truck or rail. The usual proportion of fish to ice is 75 kg: 50 kg; more ice is used in the hot season (June-August) which, fortunately, does not coincide with the peak fishing season (September-May). The tea chests are used for one trip only and are purchased by the traders from specialist procurement agents. The chests are sent mainly by road, but also by rail, to the major centres of consumption such as Bombay and Delhi. If delays occur en route some re-packing and re-icing may be carried out; this is more common in the case of fish sent by rail. (For additional information see Indian Council for Agricultural Research, 1980).
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The fish is usually received by commission agents in the large wholesale markets of these cities, one of whom (Ocean Fish Traders located in the Jama Masjid wholesale fish market in Delhi) provided comprehensive information related to this subject. The normal commission on sales is about 6%. Payment, usually made by bankers draft, and telegraphic advice on the price obtained for the consignments of fish sent, are despatched immediately to the respective fish merchant in Gujarat.
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Based on this information feedback, the merchant is then better able to decide on his immediate future requirements.
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Distribution from Gujarat is both complex and fraught with problems, which tends to favour the marketing of the higher value varieties only, as the margins for these are generally higher. This fact also has repercussions on the losses of fresh fish as will be discussed later (see p.23).
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Cured fish: handling and processing
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Fish curing in Gujarat is extremely diverse in nature and employs traditional methods. Owing to the need for fewer infrastructural facilities for the preparation of cured products (i.e. either salted and dried or dried only, for human consumption) in comparison with frozen or iced fish, this industry has tended to develop in a less centralised manner and is located at most of the fish landing centres along the coast. The range of products made is extremely diverse and there is much variation between the type of processing used, even for the same species. For example, one variety of small Sciaenid (dhoma-from the trawl by-catch) is salted and dried in five subtly different ways giving a product varying in price from Rs 4.5 to Rs 10.0/kg. This great variety of traditionally-cured produce reflects the diversity of demand in the Indian markets as well as in export markets such as Sri Lanka, Hong Kong and Singapore.
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The main types of cured produce are listed in Table 4 with indications, where available, of values and markets. Once again the market value dictates the amount of time and economic investment made in handling and processing. Low value products such as small ribbon fish are sometimes sorted from the trawl by-catch and receive a minimal salting or are simply dried unsalted. Medium-sized Sciaenids (dhoma), however, may be split and salted on the fishing boat and further processed after landing.
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The production of cured fish used for human consumption can be conveniently divided into three main groups: dried Bombay duck, salted and dried elasmobranchs (shark, skate and ray) and others.
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Bombay duck The greatest social and economic investment in the fish curing industry of Gujarat is undoubtedly centred on Bombay duck. The principal production centres visited in the south and east of the state (Jafarabad, Rajpara and Nawabandar) produce an estimated 9000 t of dried Bombay duck per season (September-January). This represents about 75 000 t of wet fish and is valued at approximately £7 million in retail terms. It is interesting to note that this figure (derived from observation and conversations with fishermen, processors and merchants) is almost double that of the available statistics (e.g. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 1983). Most of the population dependent on this fishery is migratory and situated in large temporary encampments adjacent to the fish landings. In Jafarabad alone there are estimated to be 10 000-15 000 people dedicated to this operation which is largely centred on the family, the men providing the fish and the women and
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children carrying out the complex drying operation.
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Bombay duck is dried on scaffolds consisting of ropes stretched between vertical poles approximately 2-3 metres in height. Most scaffolds are about ten sections long, each section carrying 400-500 kg of fish. In Jafarabad over 250 scaffolds were counted and these were fully utilised giving a total drying capacity at any one time of over 1 000 t of wet fish. The drying time is 3-4 days with a percentage yield over wet weight of about 12%. This low yield is due to the high moisture content of the raw material (85-90%).
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The low value by-catch fish from this industry, consisting mainly of non-Penaeid shrimps, golden anchovy and small Sciaenids (see Table 5), is dried on the ground between the Bombay duck scaffolds. It is usually separated into species and used for human consumption. The remainder (e.g. juvenile Bombay duck, small mixed fish and crustacea) are generally used for fish meal after drying in the sun.
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Salt is not used in the Bombay duck producing areas for any of the cured produce despite its ready availability and low price. This is because Bombay duck, the bulk of the catch, is traditionally an unsalted product and apparently no custom of using salt has developed in the community.
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Elasmobranchs Very large quantities of these (over 10 000 t wet weight: Marine Products Export Development Authority, 1984a) are used almost entirely for curing. They are caught mainly by gill netters (small shark) but are also landed with the trawl catch (skate and ray). Once again, there is great diversity in the product and the market. Heavily-salted and dried split whole small shark for Southern India appears to be the most popular product followed by wet-salted semi-dried shark or ray which finds a ready market in Madras and Sri Lanka. The more expensive varieties of larger shark are also cured. In this case the high value fins are dried for export thus effectively offsetting the higher beach prices payable for them. Salting is carried out either by kench piling on hard stony ground or on a concrete platform, or by wet-salting in impermeable concrete tanks. The process can vary from processor to processor according to tradition and knowledge. Owing to its low price (Rs
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0.2/kg) and ready availability, it is common to use plenty of salt. The final salt content of the product is regulated by the salting time which may vary from one day for small kench piles, to several weeks for wet-salted fish in brine. Drying is normally carried out on hessian matting spread out on the ground and usually takes 1-3 days. Many of these products are manufactured in large quantities by migratory processors from Southern India. Shark liver oil is extracted on a small scale and is used as a waterproofing material on dugout canoes. An oil extraction plant used to operate in Veraval but this ceased to function several years ago.
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Other cured products These comprise a large group of products the most important of which utilise ribbon fish, small Sciaenids (dhoma), tuna, Clupeids (e.g. Pellona spp.), anchovy and Lactarius lactarius. Traditional processing methods are extremely varied and often complex. Ribbon fish for example may be dried salted or unsalted, or even salted as an intermediate moisture product. Dhoma may be split and salted on-board or immediately after landing and can be classified according to size, cuts, etc. The observed salt:fish ratio varied from 1:10 to 1:1 and this is reflected in the results of product analyses carried out by CIFT (unpublished data). Drying is carried out on the ground on small stones, beaten surfaces or concrete depending upon availability of space and, more importantly, the value of the product.
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Cured fish: distribution and marketing
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Merchants or their agents located in the processing centres, buy and stockpile the dried produce for short periods sending regular consignments to Bombay or further afield by road. Bombay duck and ribbon fish are stored and transported in bales whilst gunny bags are invariably used for other dried fish.
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Fish meal
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The artisanal fish meal producing sector in Gujarat is also extremely important from both the economic and socio-economic points of view. This is especially so in Veraval which has many hectares of land in and around the town used for drying. The market for meal is ever increasing with the development and expansion of chicken battery farming in, for example, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Kashmir, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and especially at Poona where one of the largest battery farms in Asia is located. Competition between manufacturers is therefore very great, producing a disincentive to any form of capitalisation of the industry which has, as a result, tended to remain non-mechanised and labour intensive.
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The industry is centred on the use of 'trash' fish (Gujarati 'kutta' meaning waste) from the trawl by-catch, the material left over after the higher value species have been sorted out. As mentioned earlier, this now makes up a large proportion of the catch (62%) and is likely to have become increasingly important to the economy of the fishing operation. For this reason it would be expected that most of the by-catch trash is landed rather than discarded at sea. Significantly, observations made during a trip on a local commercial trawler, as well as through discussions with fishermen and traders, revealed that 100% of this material is now landed with no wastage occurring. This fact has important implications on the losses occurring and these will be examined later.
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During the fishing operation, the higher value shrimp and large fish are separated from the catch, a laborious process which often takes many hours per haul and may not be completed until some time after the boat has returned to port. The remaining trash is left on deck un-iced. On 2-3-day trips some salt may be shovelled on top to reduce the spoilage. Upon landing, the trash is carried off in motor rickshaws, bullock carts or other means of transport, to the nearby drying areas where it is spread out on loose ground (normally sand or soil) as thinly as possible and left to dry in the sun. The drying time ranges from 3 to 4 days, and is carried out until the moisture content has dropped to approximately 15-20%. The dried mass is packed into gunny bags and sold to merchants who pulverise it into a meal, repack and sell to itinerant buyers coming from the various inland markets. Most of the pulverising plants are situated in Veraval which has a total estimated annual
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production capacity of 15 000-20 000 t. These plants buy raw material from dryers as far away as Okha in the north. Table 6 provides some information on price structure, composition and production yields for this product.
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Only two mechanised factories exist in Gujarat, at Veraval and Mangrol. The Veraval plant, which is now non-operational, was almost identical to the Mangrol plant which by contrast is fully utilised. This conveniently allows comparisons to be drawn between the two. Both were built in the early 1970s to serve the by-catch of an increasing trawler fleet but whereas the Veraval plant did not invest in the fishing sector, the Mangrol plant did. Subsequently therefore, whilst the latter was assured of a constant supply of raw material for production, the former was not and began to find the competition from the labour-intensive artisanal producers too great to remain in operation (personal communication). Meanwhile the Mangrol plant had been able to dominate the market for almost all the trash fish caught by that fleet and so effectively excluded any competition. Additional factors such as the ready availability of groundnut husks for fuel, the fact that Mangrol has a smaller
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fleet and the promotion of the high quality aspects of this meal, have helped the latter to become a successful small enterprise. An interesting additional point is that localised air pollution caused by artisanal production of fish meal (such as that currently encountered in Veraval) is non-existent.
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Any future developments in the fish meal industry would have to take account of these factors as well as other socio-economic considerations such as the importance of this industry as a source of local employment.
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<section>Estimation of losses</section>
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Introduction
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Definition of losses
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General nature of losses in Gujarat
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Assessment of losses from trash fish and fish meal production
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Impact of losses
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Assessment of losses from fresh fish
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Impact of losses
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Assessment of losses from cured fish
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Impact of losses
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Introduction
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In the previous section an attempt was made to characterise the fishing industry of Gujarat and put into perspective what are regarded as some of the more important factors which influence losses in the region. In this section a detailed examination will be made of the data gathered during the visit on actual losses, and assessments will be made of the impact of these on the industry. The data were obtained both by observation and discussion with people related to the industry as well as by direct quantitative measurements. Much of the data presented, can, however, only be regarded as preliminary. Indeed the need for continuous monitoring in order to identify overall trends in utilisation, cannot be over emphasised.
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Definition of losses
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In the context of this study losses are expressed in economic, physical and nutritional terms. The first of these (economic losses) implies a net reduction in potential revenue from a given lot of fish; the second (physical losses) means a direct loss of nutrient material, and is taken in this case to imply a loss in water-free solids (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1981); the third (nutritional losses) implies a reduction in nutritional value or increase in toxicity of the product.
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The causes of losses are complex. They can be related both directly to inadequacies in handling, preservation and processing, and indirectly to marketing considerations such as demand and supply, and product value. Socio-economic factors such as the general ignorance of the importance of hygiene, sanitation and good processing technique can also be a major cause of loss.
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General nature of losses in Gujarat
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Over- or under-utilisation?
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The overall utilisation of the total catch in Gujarat is considered to be very high. There is little evidence of gross physical losses caused, for example, by the dumping of low value by-catch at sea, a practice which certainly takes place in other regions of India: off the east coast large quantities of by-catch are dumped into the sea by the 20-30-day shrimp trawlers (personal communication from trawler fleet owner); trawlers operating from Bombay also discard trash by-catch at sea owing to the lack of space for drying and unfavourable drying conditions (personal communication from boat owner-skipper; see also Indian Council for Agricultural Research, 1980).
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In spite of the fact that the catches of the various fleets comprise an enormous range of species whose value may vary by up to two orders of magnitude (see Table 3), this high level of utilisation is stimulated by two important factors: the strong demand for a diverse range of fish products (see p.13); and the presence of a well-established curing industry owing its existence principally to the excellent atmospheric drying conditions.
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Economic losses
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As a result of a combination of handling and socio-economic factors, fish tend to be downgraded into lower value categories. This results in economic losses throughout the industry and at all levels of operation which are likely to be extremely important. They range from the use for reduction into fish meal of small fish which would more efficiently be used for direct human consumption, to the use for domestic consumption of potentially high value fish which could be exported. Data have been gathered from fishermen, processors and traders and although firm conclusions can only be made through long-term observation, it would appear that a significant economic loss is borne by the fisheries sector as a whole.
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Physical and nutritional losses
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In Gujarat itself, net physical losses caused by poor handling, processing and spoilage are not considered to be of great significance in fish which is destined for human consumption. However, insect infestation is likely to be a problem during long-term storage of fish products in the main consumption and distribution centres such as Bombay. This will be the subject of a separate study. Nutritional losses are also unlikely to be significant in fish for human consumption except in the case of cured pelagic fish such as tuna, where the excessive rancidity observed, and the likelihood of histamine development, could pose a risk.
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Conversely, however, in fish used for fish meal production, both net physical losses and nutritional losses can be expected to be fairly high. Toxicity produced by the sometimes high proportion of puffer fish in the trash raw material (up to 22% recorded in one sample) could also pose a problem.
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Some of these aspects will now be discussed in relation to the major fish products: fish meal, fresh fish, and cured fish.
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Assessment of losses from trash fish and fish meal production
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Background to study
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In spite of the large catch of low value by-catch trash (estimated currently to average 62% of the Veraval trawler hauls) very few data are available on a number of important factors which have an influence on losses:
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Trash composition and landings: the actual amounts landed, the overall composition of this material and its variability throughout the season.
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Potential for human consumption: although the present poor handling practices on the fishing boats are seen as the most important obstacle to any attempt at upgrading this material for human consumption, there are indications that, since the early 1980s, increasing amounts of smaller fish have been used for salting and drying purposes in some of the important fishing areas of Gujarat. The products find ready markets especially in Southern India where small fish are much in demand. At present, no data are available on the significance or magnitude of this drift in utilisation.
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Mothods of handling and preservation: whilst it is clear that wastage is still occurring, with many potentially good fish being used for fish meal, little work has been done locally to determine a simple means of preserving more of these fish during the fishing operation.
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Losses occurring: owing to long delays and poor handling practice, the amount of trash lost through advanced spoilage prior to processing into fish meal is likely to be great. As yet, no quantitative measurements have been made on the economic, physical or nutritional losses incurred.
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Work carried out
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The work carried out attempted to address some of these outstanding factors and laid emphasis on the following points: the instigation of a boat sampling programme in Veraval and the Bombay duck landing centres in order to gather data on trash fish composition and quantities; the potential for upgrading certain species of trash fish and methods of simple on-board preservation; and quantitative measurements of loss during production under commercial conditions.
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Sampling programme: initial data for trawler by-catch trash fish composition and utilisation are presented in Table 7. Data for Bombay duck by-catch have been presented in Table 5.
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Several facts emerge from the sampling work carried out:
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- the extreme species diversity;
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- the large range in the proportions of the various species, which will certainly change throughout the season (see for example Rao and Kasim, 1986);
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- the reasonable level of sorting by the crew of higher value species from the by-catch thus limiting the potential for upgrading fish from the trash. During the period of the visit, most of the small fish (i.e. <15 cm overall length) had been sorted out from the by-catch and, in the case of longer trips, split and salted or simply mixed with salt on deck.
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- the absence of gross discard of trash at sea (corroborated by many local fishermen).
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- the high selectivity of the Bombay duck fishery and reduced problem of trash disposal compared with the trawl fishery.
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- much of the trash from the one-day trawlers and Bombay duck boats examined was of reasonable quality, whereas trash from the 2-3-day trawlers was generally poor.
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Potential for upgrading: for the purposes of this study, upgrading was considered to imply the improved utilisation for human consumption by simple curing of fish which would otherwise be used for fish meal. The potential for development of new products such as minces was not considered.
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In this context it is felt that some potential exists for three groups of fish which were consistently found in reasonable quantities in the trash: ribbon fish, Upeneus spp. and small Clupeids (Pellona spp.) amongst others. At other times of the year it is suspected that as the abundance of small Sciaenids, silverbelly and Lactarius spp. increases, these too could offer greater potential. As yet no quantitative data is available on these however.
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Trials were carried out on-board to assess the best way of preserving the small Pellona spp. By mixing fresh, whole and uncut fish (averaging 15 cm overall length) with salt (in the proportion of 2 parts fish: 1 part salt) in an impermeable plastic fish box, simple and effective preservation could be achieved. Table 8 illustrates the losses and weight yields which can be expected using this method. The economics and advantages of employing an extra crew member to sort and upgrade a proportion of the trash, in comparison with its sale as raw material for fish meal, will be discussed later (see p.22).
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Quantitative measurement of actual losses in fish meal production: in order to justify the need for either improving the technology used for local fish meal production or upgrading a proportion of the trash for human consumption by improved handling and preservation, tests were carried out to determine the actual extent of the losses occurring.
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A quantity of freshly-caught trash material was sorted during a fishing trip on a commercial trawler. The Pellona spp. and Sciaenids were separated from the other species and the three lots were allowed to spoil in jute sacks (at 20-25°C) for 24 hours and dried in a commercial drying yard for 3 days, when they appeared to be fully dried. Throughout the trial the individual lots were weighed and sampled. Analyses were subsequently carried out for moisture and 'sand' content allowing a reasonable assessment of the overall loss in solids during production. The results are summarised in Table 9.
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These tests highlighted the following points:
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- the overall solids loss for the integral trash material during processing was significant (-19.3%) whilst the 'perceived' loss was negligible (+1.1%). The high sand content which produces this result is due both to the loose nature of the drying surface and the large surface area of the trash to which the particles easily adhere.
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- the greatest true solids loss was incurred by the whole Pellona spp. (-27.9%) which, owing to its high oil content (19%) and low surface area: volume ratio, dried slowly and favoured the development of blowfly larvae. Upon examination, many of these fish were hollowed out. Larvae appeared within the first day of drying, presumably emerging from the loose soil beneath, or from nearby material at various stages of drying.
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- there is a tendency for the material (especially the integral trash) to stick together during processing. If care is not taken to spread the material as thinly as possible on the ground, drying will be slowed down favouring infestation and development of blowfly larvae.
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- the natural drying conditions in Gujarat are excellent with very low relative humidity, constant bright sunshine and prevailing breeze. As would be expected, this generally inhibited blowfly larval development in the smaller material with a high surface area: volume ratio (dhoma, sole) and for these species the losses during the drying stage are lower than in the integral trash and Pellona spp.
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- comparison of the losses in dried fish with those in salted and dried dish (see Tables 8 and 9) shows, as would be expected, that losses are greater in the former.
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In general therefore, solids losses in fish meal production are likely to be significant both prior to and during the processing operation, the extent of the losses being determined by the factors outlined above.
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Impact of losses
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Trawler by-catch trash
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When the dried trash is sold to the pulverising agent, it is sold by weight and no direct account is taken of the sand content, at least within the range experienced in the trials above. Certainly no premium is paid for raw material with low sand content and the price is paid according to the perceived weight. Any significant reduction in the loss of nutrient material would almost certainly imply an increase in capital investment over the present system, an unattractive proposition given present levels of competition. In addition, attempts to improve product quality by reducing the sand content (for example by promoting the use of concrete slabs for drying) would run the risk of reducing the producer's revenue.
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A more feasible solution to reduce losses in trash fish would therefore be an attempt to upgrade a proportion of the catch for human consumption. In order to demonstrate this, in the following analysis (Table 10) a comparison is made between identical lots of 'typical' trash, one of which is used entirely for fish meal and the other further sorted and a proportion upgraded into cured products. Certain assumptions are made:
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- that a market exists for the cured produce: a number of processors indicated that they could sell much more than their existing production and that the increased utilisation of some species from the trash would be one way of fulfilling this demand. that an extra crew member would be recruited to act as sorter
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and salter.
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- that there are no socio-economic constraints such as an inflexible contract between merchant/boat owner and fishermen to land trash fish only for fish meal; this could well be an important constraint to this development.
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- that the fish composition does not vary throughout the season: as has been mentioned however, this is unlikely to be the case. Until further long term data has been gathered, this cannot be quantified.
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- that the average landing of trash per day per trawler is 500 kg and only species occurring in quantities above 5% would be considered because of complications of sorting.
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From Table 10 it can be seen that the potential overall increase in revenue to the industry based in Veraval is about Rs 4 million with an estimated increase in production of about 8 000-10 000 t/year of cured fish products (i.e. 75% of the existing state production of dried fish).
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Whilst there appears to be a significant economic advantage there are many potential problems some of which are related to the assumptions made above. In addition, considering the inconvenience of any increased activity on the relatively small boats during fishing operations, the economic advantage is probably too small (at Rs 41.5/boat/day) to encourage many operators.
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Bombay duck by-catch
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With respect to this material, observations revealed that utilisation was high. In comparison with the trawl by-catch trash, there is a much smaller proportion, the species diversity is lower, and sorting and processing into products for human consumption is easier and more effective. Further sorting occurred even after drying to separate shrimps and small fish. It is considered, however, that certain aspects of handling, principally hygiene and sanitation, could be improved upon. In many cases dried fish was contaminated with sand and this is likely to depress market value and lead to economic losses.
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Assessment of losses from fresh fish
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Background to study
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The long distances involved in the transportation of fresh fish (e.g. Veraval to Bombay, over 24 hours by road) and the high ambient temperatures, in combination with the poor quality packing materials, would be expected to increase the risk of losses occurring. However, many Gujarati traders deny that there are any substantial losses.
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A major study aimed at investigating the various technological problems associated with the transportation of fish in India was carried out by CIFT in the 1970s (Indian Council for Agricultural Research, 1980). Despite a lack of comprehensive quantitative data, the report of this study does provide some information on the quality and losses of fish from Gujarat. Reference is made to the quality of fish arriving in tea chests in Bombay (80% in 'acceptable' condition) and Calcutta (90% in 'fair' condition). The final report states that the overall losses due to spoilage ranged from 10% to 25% and could be eliminated completely through the use of insulated boxes, as demonstrated by extensive trials carried out with expanded polystyrene-lined tea chests.
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Work carried out
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Although at this stage it was impossible to implement a long-term product monitoring programme in the manner envisaged, useful data were nevertheless obtained through ad hoc visits to the landing centres and discussions with those concerned within the industry. Useful data were also obtained from Delhi's Jama Masjid market as well as from the work carried out previously by CIFT (Indian Council for Agricultural Research, 1980). Ideally, the work would later be extended to cover the quality of fresh fish in Bombay's wholesale markets.
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General observations
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Although under the circumstances outlined above it is difficult to make any quantitative judgement on the extent of actual losses in fresh fish, a number of conclusions can be drawn from the visit as to the nature of the losses occurring:
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- primarily, those of an economic nature caused by downgrading or non-realisation of export market potential owing to a combination of poor preservation of fish and poor hygiene and sanitation at the landing centres.
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- secondarily, those of a physical nature caused by drip loss and spoilage during handling and distribution.
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In spite of these losses, it is highly unlikely that fresh fish, even though this may have become spoiled, will be totally lost to the system. Depending on the degree of spoilage and the stage at which this occurs, the fish will either be diverted at source for salting and drying, or be sold at lower prices at the destination market.
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The large demand for fish and fish products ensures that the overall utilisation of fish is extremely high.
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Economic losses: exports
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The use for domestic consumption of potentially exportable produce can be thought of as a source of economic loss. Although losses in potential exports are impossible to quantify accurately, discussions held with a number of overseas buyers in Gujarat during the visit confirmed that they are likely to be of importance. Buyers from both Australia (red snapper, other perch, small shark) and Hong Kong (hilsa and shrimp) expressed concern about the extremely poor sanitary conditions at the landing centres and the insufficient use of ice. Nevertheless, most exporters are conscious of these problems and there are indications that improvements are leading to increasing exports of fish products such as ribbon fish (markets in Gulf States, Hong Kong and Japan), small shark and Epinephelus spp. Significantly, one of the main Veraval exporters handling these products stated that he could only guarantee raw material quality by financing his own fishing operation. Most of his high
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quality fish was caught by hook and line by previous agreement with the fishermen. Occasionally some was bought from gill netters but never from the trawler fleet. A premium price was payable for this quality, Rs 2 or 3/kg above the usual price.
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Economic losses: domestic markets
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Information gathered from numerous agents in the Jama Masjid market in Delhi (see p.12) indicates that on average 10-15% of fish arriving from Gujarat (mainly from Veraval) is not of prime quality and is sold for about 50% of the full market price. The large population in the urban centres ensures that there is always a demand for low-priced fish. Examination of samples of this fish showed that it tended to comprise the lower value varieties (such as small Sciaenids, tuna and catfish) and especially those packed toward the outside of the tea chest. Spoilage is likely to be greater in these lower value varieties of fish for the reasons discussed above (i.e. Iittle use of ice and less care invested in their post-harvest handling prior to landing in comparison with higher value varieties). Further problems in their marketing are demonstrated in Table 11 which shows the greater inherent financial risk involved. This situation tends to favour the marketing of higher value
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species. Clearly, further information is required to confirm this and permit more detailed analyses. This should be provided through the survey of Bombay markets currently being undertaken by CIFT (Bombay).
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Physical losses
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In both Bombay and Delhi, a weight loss of 5% is automatically assumed: when fish arrives at the wholesale markets it is customarily weighed into 42 kg lots which are then auctioned off as 40 kg (Agarwal, 1977; personal communication). The All India
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Study (Indian Council for Agricultural Research, 1980) reports comprehensively on the various changes in fish composition.
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Impact of losses
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The economic implications of the sources of loss described are difficult to quantify. The lack of accurate and long-term data on amounts, quality and species of fish gathered from the major production and marketing centres is seen as being a major obstacle here. The following analysis (Table 12) should therefore be regarded as tentative. Once again certain assumptions have been made for convenience:
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- data on economic losses are based on the work described above and extrapolated to cover the total amount of fresh fish marketed from Gujarat. a drip loss of 5% has been assumed for all fish marketed fresh;
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- the market value is based on figures obtained in Jama Masjid wholesale market, Delhi and the downgraded value is assumed to be 50% of this;
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No attempt is made in this analysis to assess the increases in revenue through the upgrading of fresh fish for export. The many variable factors such as export value, surcharge for high quality raw material, increased production, storage and shipping costs are unknown quantities. Even so, it can be seen that the conservative figures for assumed losses reveal a large total economic loss to the sector of over Rs 70 million (i.e. around 10% of the total annual revenue from this industry). Although the bulk of this loss is borne directly by the marketing sector, principally the Gujarat merchants, they have much influence over the development of the fishery in terms of the provision of capital to fishermen and other more direct investments. However, it is not clear whether attempts to reduce these losses and increase the income of the fish traders would lead to improvements being made to the fishing sector generally.
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Insulated ice boxes would be one way of reducing losses, firstly by reducing the ice meltage (although ice represents only a very small proportion of the fish cost as shown in Table 11), and, secondly, by helping to eliminate the downgrading which occurs. The All India Study (Indian Council for Agricultural Research, 1980) reports comprehensively on the use of expanded polystyrene (EPS)-lined tea chests but the industry has failed to take up any of the ideas. Possible reasons for this are:
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- the containers cannot be recovered and used again so their cost has to be very low.
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- all fish is sold anyway with an acceptable degree of loss to the traders.
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- competition from other merchants and demand for low retail prices keep any capital investment at a minimum.
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Assessment of losses from cured fish
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Background to study
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Despite the fact that Gujarat produces some 75,000-100,000 t/year (net weight equivalent) of cured fish valued at around Rs 135 million, and employs over half of the quarter of a million people involved in the state fisheries, very little information is available on quantities, quality and type of products manufactured and marketed by this sector. As with the other product groups covered in this report, recommendations are made to improve upon this situation and enable better assessments to be made of the overall losses occurring.
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Work carried out This emphasised the following:
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- product monitoring programme: although this could not be established on a permanent basis as had been envisaged, much data was nevertheless obtained during ad hoc visits made to a number of processors and merchants at the landing centres (principally Veraval, Porbandar, Jafarabad, Mangrol and Okha).
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- product yields and losses: a trial was carried out using small Clupeids (Pellona spp.) and results were compared with those described for trash fish.
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General observations
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It is apparent that the losses occurring in cured fish can be regarded as follows:
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- primarily, economic in nature arising from the downgrading of poor quality material into lower value products used either for human consumption or for fish meal.
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- physical losses due to insect infestation or loss of solids during processing. These, however, are regarded as being of little importance.
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As with fresh fish, total discard does not occur, poor quality material being sold at proportionally lower prices rather than being thrown away.
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Economic losses
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The quality criteria which determine the value of many products are very well defined with rejection often occurring for only minor defects in appearance, or too high moisture content, etc. It is of interest to note that different markets appear to demand different quality: produce for Kerala and Southern India generally tends to be of superior quality to that destined, for example, for Assam. Passive quality control appears to be effectively carried out by the dominant section of the migrant processing population from Southern India who process fish with great care and ensure that the product reaches the market in prime condition. It is estimated that economic losses from these higher value products (such as salted dried shark) are very low due mainly to this processing expertise.
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On the occasions when products do not reach the quality standard of one particular market, they will be sold either to another perhaps less demanding market or utilised for fish meal. This downgrading due to poor quality, which was observed on several occasions, occurs mainly in the lower value varieties of product such as those deriving from the trawler by-catch (e.g. dhoma, ribbon fish), or the lower value cuts from large shark, skate and ray. The quality of these suffers because of either poor initial post-harvest handling or inadequate processing (see p.13), and is often the result of small-scale or opportunistic processing which is a common practice in the production centres.
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When poor quality products are sold for fish meal manufacture, the salt content is an important factor in regulating the amounts used. It will be noted from the analyses presented in Table 6 that the salt content of fish meal averages about 5%. This is considered to be high.
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With regard to Bombay duck drying, economic losses appear to occur according to minor differences in product quality. The highest quality product ('Disco') is dried on the boats and presents no problems with insect filth. At the other end of the scale, the lower quality product is one which is contaminated with sand and dirt and is incompletely dried. Insufficient time was available to measure the magnitude of these economic losses during the visit. However, the overall efficiency of Bombay duck drying (an enormous operation by artisanal standards) is regarded as being high.
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Physical losses
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In all cases sun drying of fish in Gujarat is helped by the excellent atmospheric conditions of low relative humidity, wind and continuous sunshine which both impede blow fly attack and increase the rate of drying. In addition, these conditions favour the production of solar salt, resulting in large quantities of low priced material. This combination of factors help explain why the gross physical losses, caused principally by insect infestation, which may occur elsewhere in India and other parts of the world, are kept to a minimum. This has led to the strong and successful tradition of fish curing in this region of India.
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Indeed, only on few occasions was insect infestation observed in fish being cured, or in cured products, for human consumption and this was usually in fish which had already been downgraded for fish meal. On no occasions were 'salt resistant' blow fly larvae seen (see Poulter and Walker, 1986) and blow fly larval infestation was strictly limited to trash fish being dried for meal. Many small warehouses and stores were examined, in which cured fish had been kept for periods ranging from a few days to 2 months. The following examples given are considered as typical:
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- where salted and dried shark was examined (often in temporary stores in the encampments at the northern landing centres, sometimes holding 10-20 t of product awaiting transport), on no occasion was insect infestation seen. Neither was it reported to be a problem.
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- in Dui (Kalpana Freezers) a store containing 75 t of salted dried tuna and leather jacket was visited. This had a slight problem with mould growth (after 6 weeks storage) but no insect infestation.
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- a small amount (estimated visually at less than 5%) of small Clupeids (Pallona spp. and razor edge) drying on scaffolds in Okha, presented some beetle contamination (Dermestes spp.). Their high oil content and soft flesh is likely to make these species more susceptible to infestation.
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- an 'open-air' store of 15-20 t of tuna under tarpaulin was visited in Veraval. This had some beetle infestation (high oil content) but was also extremely rancid (see overleaf Nutritional losses).
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- a pulverising agent in Veraval (Veraval Fertilizers) had about 3 t dried ribbon fish of which about 5% was physically damaged by beetles, probably due to the lack of salt and too high a moisture content (his explanation). However, this was stored outside, appeared to have been there for a long period and was adjacent to fish meal raw material and product which presented both Necrobia and Dermestes contamination.
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- neither of the two 'mechanised' fish meal plant owners reported problems with infestation although the Veraval owner expressed some interest in fumigation techniques for periods of long-term storage.
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- no insect infestation was observed or reported at the main cured fish producers in Veraval (e.g. Honest Dried Fish).
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Quantitative measurement of actual losses
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Although physical losses as assessed by observation appeared to be small, a trial was set up to attempt to quantify them.
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One lot of freshly caught Pellona spp. was salted on a commercial trawler using 2 parts fish: 1 part salt. The whole tin-cut fish and salt were layered into an impermeable plastic fishbox and left for 3 days after which they were washed in fresh water to remove adhering salt, drained and dried for 4 days in the sun in a commercial drying area. The material was weighed and samples were taken prior to, during and after processing and loss was assessed as described on p.19 by measuring the loss in total solids. Table 8 summarised the results of this test.
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As can be seen, in this case losses were negligible. Further work is required, however, to measure losses (physical and nutritional) in, for example, fish cured in brine or left in kench piles for long periods where protein and mineral depletion may be a problem.
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Nutritional losses
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Salting and drying of tuna such as Euthynnus affinis, skipjack and yellowfin, observed mainly in Mangol and Veraval, often results in a badly oxidised product. The high oil content also leaves the flesh fairly soft and more susceptible to insect attack, a problem which may become serious at the destination market or store. In addition, tuna is prone to histamine development and poor post-harvest handling will exacerbate the problem. Whilst rancidity does not appear to jeopardise the market (indeed it is a prerequisite for this product) there could be toxic effects caused by high levels of rancidity and the development of toxic amines.
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Impact of losses
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Owing to the complexity of this industry, it is not possible at this stage to quantify losses in economic terms. However, it can be stated that the physical losses occurring in Gujarat during processing and storage are likely to be low and significantly less than those incurred during long-term storage at the distribution centres such as Bombay.
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A reduction in the economic losses in fish curing operations could be achieved by improvements both in preservation prior to processing and in processing itself. Clearly socio-economic factors will play an important role in both of these.
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<section>Conclusions</section>
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The overall utilisation of fish in Gujarat appears to be high with very little evidence of the catch being wasted or lost from the system. However, as a result of a combination of poor handling and socio-economic factors, fish tends to be downgraded into lower value categories with the result that economic losses suffered by the industry as a whole can be regarded as significant. Such losses are incurred at all levels of production from the use of good quality fish for producing fish meal, to the non-fulfillment of export potential.
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It can be seen that the impact of the losses caused by product downgrading outweighs that caused by physical losses through such vectors as insect infestation. Although the net result of this is to reduce revenue to the fisheries sector in general, it does in fact have the important effect of increasing the general availability of low priced fish to the consumer, the demand for which is certainly very great. Whether nutritional factors such as toxicity from amines, rancid fish oils or pathogenic bacterial contamination represent a great problem in this downgraded material is uncertain but considered unlikely. Toxicity of fish meal caused by puffer fish toxin may be a more serious problem.
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Although a strong market demand for fish meal as well as an increase in the availability of trawler by-catch trash raw material are factors which have led to a proliferation in fish meal manufacture, it is felt that there is room for improvements in the utilisation of this trash raw material in terms of its potential use for human consumption. It has been estimated that by improving the sorting and preservation of trash, up to one half could economically be upgraded into products for human consumption which already have a market. However, although this would provide an additional source of low-priced food fish for the Indian population, it may also deprive the market of raw material for fish meal.
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Overall economic losses to the fisheries sector due to downgrading, failure to fulfil export potential, spoilage and insect infestation have been estimated as follows:
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- fresh fish domestic market (loss of export markets not included): Rs 70 million (@ 10% wholesale value);
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- trash fish/fish meal: Rs 4.15 million (@ 1% of actual value);
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- cured fish: too complex to estimate given the present state of knowledge, but expected to be small.
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Note: Although losses of fresh fish occurring in the destination markets are included in the above analysis, the losses incurred by cured fish and fish meal (e.g. by insect infestation) are not. These would certainly have a marked effect on the estimated figures for loss.
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Insect infestation of fish products for human consumption in Gujarat is not a problem. This is due principally to the excellent drying conditions prevailing during the fishing season and the liberal use of salt. Where salt is not used (e.g. Bombay duck, ribbon fish) the use of drying scaffolds helps to prevent infestation. Nevertheless, some minor improvements could be made in the processing of some of the lower value products (derived for example from trawl by-catch) to ensure that these are well salted and dried.
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Insect infestation during fish meal manufacture is more of a problem due to the lack of salt and the material's tendency to agglomerate. Improvements over the existing types of processing, however, would be hampered by the impracticability of further capital investment in this area.
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Insect (beetle) infestation in all cured products, especially those with low salt and improperly dried, is reported to be a problem during later storage and distribution in the major marketing centres away from Gujarat.
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Future work in this field should emphasise the importance of establishing continuous monitoring of the more important fishery products destined for internal markets, to further identify and quantify losses and, in order to reduce these losses, to apply improved methods of handling and processing which are appropriate to existing systems. A major effort should be made to promote these methods and to advise on the needs and advantages of improved hygiene and sanitation in key landing areas.
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<section>References and bibliography</section>
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BADONIA, R. (1981) Cooked and frozen lobster. Seafood Export Journal, 13 (7), 1 -2.
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BADONIA, R. (1986) Review on processing of Bombay Duck. Seafood Export Journal, October, 9-12.
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BADONIA, R. and DEVADASAN, K. (1980) Frozen storage characteristics of ribbon fish. Fishery Technology, 17, 125-126.
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BALACHANDRAN, K. K. and MURALEEDHARAN, V. (1975) Studies on Colombo curing of mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta). Fishery Technology, 12, 145-150.
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CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE (1983) Marine Fisheries Information Service-Bulletin No 52, Technical and Extension Series. Cochin, India: CMFRI.
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CUHAY, N. D. (1985) Studies on some aspects of profitable utilisation of trash fish for human health and nutrition. Harvest and Post-Harvest Technology of Fish. Cochin, India: Society of Fisheries Technologists.
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DAMLE, S. P., GARG, D. K., NARAYANAN NAMBIAR, V. and VASU, N. M. (1986) Quality of fish preparations served in catering establishments in Bombay. Fishery Technology, 23, 53-56.
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DESHPANDE, S. D., SIVAN, T. M. and RAMA RAO, S. V. S. (1970) Results of comparative fishing trials with rectangular flat and rectangular covered otter boards. Fishery Technology, 7, 38-41.
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DEVDASAN, K., MURALEEDHARAN, V. and JOSEPH, K. G. (1975a) Pickle curing of fish using tartaric acid and garlic as preservatives. Fishery Technology, 12, 156 - 160.
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DEVDASAN, K., MURALEEDHARAN, V. and JOSEPH, K. G. (1975b) Studies on smoke curing of tropical fishes. Fishery Technology, 12, 77.
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FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS (1981) The prevention of losses in cured fish. Fisheries Technical Paper No. 219, Rome: FAO.
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GAJERA, G. L. (1977) Preparation and storage behaviour of fish protein biscuits during transportation in isolated containers. Fishery Technology, 14, 57-60.
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GARG, D. K. and STEPHEN, J. (1985) Iced storage of Ghol (Pseudosciaena diacanthus) fillets. Harvest and Post-Harvest Technology of Fish. Cochin, India: Society of Fishery Technologists.
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GEORGE, M. J., SUBBARAJU, G. and DHARMARAJA, S. K. (1983) Trends in marine fish production in India-1982 - 83. Marine Fisheries Information Service, Training and Extension Service, No. 52, pp.1-20.
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GOVINDAN, T. K. (1985) Handling and transportation of fresh fish in India. Harvest and Post-Harvest Technology of Fish. Cochin, India: Society of Fisheries Technologists.
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GUPTA, R. and SAMUEL, C. T. (1985) Some fungal infestations of dried fishes in Cochin markets. Fishery Technology, 22, 132- 134.
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JOSEPH, K. G., MURALEEDHARAM, V. and NAIR, T. S. V. (1983) Quality of cured fishery products from Matabar and Kanava coasts. Fishery Technology, 20, 118-122.
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JOSEPH, K. G., MURALEEDHARAM, V., KALAIMANI, N. and NAIR, T. S. V. (1986) Quality of cured fish from Tamil Nadu coast. Fishery Technology, 23, 63-65.
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MURALEEDHARAN. V., KALAINANI, N., UNNIKRISHNAN NAIR, T. S. and GEORGE JOSEPH, K. (1986) Smoke curing of Catfish (Tachysuvai dussumievi). Fishery Technology, 23, 106-107.
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